Alternative Development: the Modern Thrust of Supply Side Policy

Alternative development is closely associated with reductions in drug crop cultivation at the local level. However, currently these local successes cannot be directly attributed to alternative development interventions because the motivations and circumstances that determine household drug crop cultivation remain largely unexplored. Research has tended to focus on aggregate trends in drug crop cultivation at the national, regional and village level. The specific socio-economic, cultural and environmental circumstances that influence household production are consequently overlooked in project design. Rather, alternative development initiatives have adopted a uniform approach where emphasis is placed on the high economic returns that opium and coca are reported to accrue per unit of land. This paper rejects this uni-causal explanation of drug crop cultivation that finds its basis in the assumption that drug crop producers are a homogenous group. It offers an insight into the diversity of factors that influence household drug crop cultivation that are currently neglected, including returns on labour, access to credit and land, and the effect of law enforcement and conditionality. It indicates that the failure to recognise the dynamics of household decision making has implications for the cost effectiveness of the current strategy and raises questions as to the unintended consequences of alternative development, particularly with regard to its impact on the poor and the process of relocation. It also illustrates that greater attention needs to be given to the timing and interface between law enforcement initiatives and alternative development interventions. The paper concludes that a greater understanding of the multi-functional role that drug crops play in the socio-economy of the household would assist in determining more effective and sustainable initiatives aimed at reducing both existing, and potential drug crop cultivation. It also suggests that the overall success of supply side interventions will be contingent on reductions in demand both internationally and increasingly in source countries. OPIUM AND COCA: THEIR CULTIVATION AND CHARACTERISTICS Opium and coca represent efficient cash crops well suited to the harsh local conditions of source areas. Opium will grow with little difficulty in conditions unsuitable for most other crops, cultivated on either irrigated or unirrigated land and at altitudes of up to 3000 metres. Households are also able to take advantage of the variety of climates available to them in the mountainous areas of opium This is a modified version of a paper originally commissioned by the Economic and Social Council on Research of the Department for International Development of the UK Government, as part of the study 'Illicit Drugs in Developing Countries: A Literature Review'. The views in this paper are those of the author and should not be attributed to the DFID. cultivation. Consequently planting dates and the altitude of cultivation is varied as a response to changing weather conditions, reducing risk and accruing higher yields. Coca also shows resilience in a marginal environment. It is able to grow in a variety of altitudinal, climatic and soil conditions. It shows a resistance to pests and diseases and is tolerant of acidic soils, consequently the use of pesticides and fertilisers is limited, making it a popular crop in the economically and environmentally fragile areas of the Andes. It is a perennial that matures in only eighteen months and can be harvested 4 to 6 times per annum for up to forty years, although productivity does begin to dwindle after fifteen. The labour intensive nature of harvesting means that coca not only provides a livelihood for the producer but has given those on the altiplano a consistent source of employment [3]. Both opium and coca are low capital input/high yield crops that produce non perishable, high value to weight products. The durability of opium means households can choose to speculate if market prices are deemed too low. Opium also produces a number of by-products with both a high use and exchange value. With many areas of cultivation lacking adequate infrastructure the high value for weight ratio of coca and opium makes the transportation of relatively small amounts by either mule or foot a profitable endeavour. Most importantly they have almost guaranteed markets and access to credit and seeds from some traders. Were it not for the undesirability of the end product, opium cultivation would be considered the ideal solution to the agricultural problems of Badakhshan, and aid agencies would no doubt be heavily promoting its cultivation and introducing improved methods of production [4]. Measures of opium and coca cultivation inform policy makers of resource priorities and the effectiveness of current supply side strategies [5]. However, reliable estimates of illicit drug production have been difficult to obtain due to the political and geographic inaccessibility of source areas. Inadequate data on the level of opium and coca cultivation, yields, alkaloid content, harvesting efficiency and conversion factors has resulted in a wide disparity in the measurement of worldwide cocaine and heroin production. For instance, opium production figures derived by UNDCP’s Annual Opium Poppy Survey for Afghanistan have consistently differed from those produced by the United States Government estimates, sometimes by as much as 100%. Yet it is important to recognise that, even with consensus on the extent of drug crop cultivation in any given source country, there is a need to develop a greater understanding of the complexity of implementing alternative development interventions in source areas, and what these interventions can realistically hope to achieve given the growing demand for illicit drugs and the continuing prevalence of rural underdevelopment. Cultivating opium is not without risk, aside from the threat of eradication by law enforcement agencies, opium poppy is vulnerable to a limited number of natural threats during the first two months of growth, including inadequate sunshine, excessive rainfall, insects, worms, hailstorms, early frost and trampling by animals. During the harvest, rain and high winds will reduce yields. The harvesting of opium poppy also requires skill and experience and it is thought that a significant proportion of the potential yield can be lost due to untimely, or improper, lancing [1]. The outbreak of fusarium oxysporum in the Upper Huallaga valley, Peru has illustrated that coca production is not without risk from natural agents. Moreover, coca requires three days to dry after being harvested. In the tropical zones of the Andes, where coca is generally grown, excessive rainfall is typical. The timing of the harvest is critical if the leaves are not to blacken and be wasted [2]. Coca's ecological range is not limited to South America, during the turn of the century it was cultivated on the island of Java, Indonesia. ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT